Glimpses of Australian Prehistory
The two earliest sites,which provide reliable evidence of human occupation in Australia are Carpenters Gap 1 [44370 BCE =/-1400a,all BCE dates are calibrated;J O'connor,2006] in the southern Kimberleys and Devil’s Lair [layer 28,42950 BCE +/-950a] in the SW extremity of Australia .The deeper layers at Devil’s layer 31-38 have been subjected to post-depositional disturbance and the genuine cultural artifacts are out of context.G Turney [2001] suggested that the initial utilization of the site probably occurred ca 47500-42950 BCE.A lithic core was excavated at a depth of 1.5m at Lake Gregory W.A.The sediment that yielded the stone artifact has been provisionally dated by the optically stimulated luminescence method to ca 48000-43000 BCE.At that time Lake Gregory had abundant water and natural resources,which would have attracred early colonists.Future research may validate older locations.The place where the first Australian set foot on the Island Continent is now submerged under water.During the last glacial maximum New Guinea,Australia and Tasmania formed the large,single land mass of Sahul.Prior to 40000 BCE relative sea level was ca 40m lower than it is today and the areal extent of Australia was larger.The first Australians made the epic 80-120 km open sea voyage from Timor to Australia or walked from New Giunea.The initial Salawesi seafarers would have had to negotiate a number of perilous open sea passages between the intervening islands before they made land fall on Irian Jara.Computer stimulations imply that canoes can drift from Timor to Australia in less than a week during the mid-summer monsoons and that the return journey is difficult at any time [S Wild,1985]. The first Australian colonists were probably transported on a primitive raft.
When the first hunter-gatherers ventured inland prior to 40000 BCE conditions were more hospitable in Australia and the desert regions were smaller than they are now. During arid periods occupation was more intense proximal to fresh water supplies and some areas had to be abandoned.These people maintained a diverse,highly adaptable,relatively mobile life style.Exploitation of marine resources along the coastlines varied regionally and temporally [M Hiscock,2008].This type of foraging became more common during the early Holocene, when the population of the country started to obtain more significant levels [A Brumm,2003]. The Willandra Lakes region of NSW was frequented by humans before 40 Ka ago until ca 20 Ka ago.These individuals consumed lacustrine fish,shell fish and small fauna [H Lawrence,2006].Mungo 3 was buried on the Right Side with ochre sprinkled over the remainsThe nearest ochre source was the Manfred Ranges,which were ca 100 km distant.OSL age determinations imply that Mungo 3 was interred ca 40+/-2.0 Ka ago.The oldest lithic tools at Willandra Lakes have been tentatively dated to 47-45Ka.Most of the lakes became dry during the last glacial maximum and the region was largely abandoned.The gracile,young,female Mungo 1 was cremated ca 23850 BCE +/- 800a [J Bowler,1998].
During the Middle Holocene Australian populations attained a signicant level,with an appreciable increase in site utilization ,when climatic conditions were favourable.Societies tended to become more complex and more remote areas were occupied,as exchange networks gradually expanded.Resource management intensified [A Brumm,2003].The Gobarnmung cave site in Arnhem Land yielded a ground edge axe,that has been “tentatively” dated to ca 38700 BCE,cal’09 [B David 2010].Ground axes reappeared and became more common ca 2500 BCE.Ritual interments with funerary items,became more prevalent.Over 300 pierced kangaroo and wallaby incisors were retrieved from adouble burial [ca 5000 BCE] at Cooma,NSW.Pleistocene inhumations had minimal grave goods. As sea levels rose some groups were forced to relocate,which escalated the degree of conflict. [A Brumm,2003].
Early evidence of personal ornamentation was retrieved from the Mandu Mandu rock shelter [ca 35525 BCE +/- 1090a].Micro-wear analysis indicated,that worn notches on perforated Canus shells,infers that the shells were used as beads [K Morse,1993]. Dentalium shell fragments,with use-wear on their orfices [beads?;41970-33230 BCE] were recovered from the Riwi site in the southern Kimberley region,which is more than 400km from the sea [J Balme,2000].Prior to 12000-11000 BCE,when Tasmania was isolated by the rising waters of the glacial melt,it was connected to the mainland of Australia [K lambeck,2001].Warren cave in SW Tasmania is the oldest site on the island.Age estimates for its initial utilization range from ca 38500? BCE [R Cosgrove,2004] to ca 29700 +/- 400a BCE [numerous authors].Early stone tool assemblages contain disc shaped,retouched flakes,which could be used to perform various functions.Hunters participated in brief seasonal expeditions to acquire Bennet wallabies for sustenance .Comparisons have been made between Tasmanian cranial morphologies and those of Melanesians/Mungo 3.
The large,robust crania from Kow Swamp,which share some archaic features with New Guinea highlanders have been directly dated to 13785-6400 BCE [A Terne,1972]. Stimulated luminescence [T Stone,2003] dated “sediments” by the cultural material and humans to ca 22-19Ka. This does not record an individual’s burial date. Some of the Kow Swamp and broadly coeval Coobal Creek skulls appear to have been intentionally shaped [A Durband,2008].The relative robustness of Australian crania can not be correlated with prehistoric eras. The massive Cossack skull [ca 4500? BCE;J Flood,1997] was discovered near a tropical coast in NW Western Australia and the more gracile Mungo 3 cranium could be about 40Ka old.
The earliest Australian lithic tools belong to the Core Tool and Scraper tradition.The implements vary regionally,but have affinities with ca 100Ka old industries in Eurasia and Africa. The “horse hoof” core is distinctive to Australia.It was often shaped from river pebbles.Subsequently there were a number of advances in stone tool technologies,which indicate that creative ability was not lacking among indigenous knappers.The Gabarnmung cave in Arnhem Land yielded a ground stone axe,which is estimated to date to ca 38720 BCE +/- 700a [D Bruno,2010].A rock shelter in Alligator River in Kakado yielded 15 stone axe heads [ca23-18Ka].The upper blades were ground to facilitate hafting.Ground edge axes were also present at the Wingingarri and Miriwun sites in the Kimberleys [G White,1965].Only a small portion of Australian lithic tools seem to have recurrent forms that can be classified.Collections of non-standardized scrapers dominate Pleistocene inventories [C Shrire,nd].Backed tools were relatively common in north Africa and SW Asia ca 20000 BCE and were present in Europe ca 12500 BCE. Backed artifacts were discarded from ca 6350 BCE – 350 ADE at the Mussel site west of Wyong,NSW [G Robertson,2009].They became more common from 1500BCE – 500 ADE. Microliths at the Walker Arch site Cape York could date to ca 16400 BCE +/- 75Ka and in the Gulf of Carpenteria region microliths are estimated to be 16-14.5Ka old [M Slack,2004].Those in the Loggers Shelter in Se Australia were made 9.5-9.0 Ka ago [P Hiscock,2008].Post 2000 BCE microlithics became more prevalent.Early innovations are less likely to be perpetuated by a thinly scattered relatively low population densities [Stiner,2002].
” Australian rock art is visually varied and each region has its own distinctive elements”.Archaic face rock carvings at Cleveland Hills ca 200km west of Alice Springs “could” date from26850-9500 BCE [J McDonald,2006].Except in exceptional circumstances,it is difficult to establish the age of rock art with confidence.Janez and C99 rock shelters on northern Cape Range peninsula,WA,were occupied as early as 38000-37200 BCE.These nomads exploited marine and terrestrial resources.The rock art has been tentatively dated to the Holocene,when there was a greater dependency on marine resources,[K Przywolnik,2005].There are lattice type designs in Koonaldo cave 30m below the Nullabor Plains,WA.People etched the soft limestone walls and abandoned their torches ca 20000 BCE [A Gallus,1975].Their is a much higher incidence of different languages and art styles in the far north of the continent than in the south.North of Darwin,NT,the Tiwi Islanders converse in a tongue,which does not seem to originate from the ancestral stock proto-Australian language [J Flood,1999].There are 13 native languages spoken in the Port Keats area south of Darwin [M Smith,2002].Pama-Ngungan is the most widespread single phylum in Australia and dominates the south.The most complex non-Pama-Ngungan language varieties consist of 60 languages in 9 groups,which are spoken in the Kimberleys,”Top End’ and Gulf of Carpentaria regions.The above suggests that there have been small,sporadic influxes of newcomers to Australia over a long time frame [speculation].
The Giro Giro [Bradshaw] rock art paintings in the Kimberleys and the Dynamic rock art style in the Northern Territories [NT] provide information about aspects of prehistory,folklore and culture of the ancient indigenous inhabitants.Giro Giro art frequently depicts slender,graceful figures without facial features and with various ornaments [eg:sashes,tasels,wizards hats] and attire.The initial Giro Giro art did not portray conflict and the floating figures could relate to death.Many of the later clothes peg figures are associated with the unique multi-barbed spear and multi purpose spear thrower,which were used ca 8.0-4.5Ka ago.A scene with many people could represent a battle.Several Giro Giro art forms exhibit a base line-figure relationship,which is rarely used in ancient Australian rock art.One rock mural depicts a boat with a high prow and stern,which contains 29 individuals.The late clothes peg figures in the eastern Kimberleys have affinities with the Dynamic art style in the Victoria River region.
The age of the Giro Giro art work is equivocal.Radio carbon measurements by A Watchman on an exalate accreted red paint from late rock art yielded a date of ca 2000 BCE.R Roberts [1997] used an early luminescene technique to date a fossilized mud wasp nest [ca 17.5Ka],that overlies a Giro Giro figure,which is deemed to be transitional between the earlier classical depictions and the clothes peg figures [J Flood,1999].G Walsh [2000].a devotee of Giro Giro rock art,commented that there is no evidence of artistic or cultural evolution of this art style in the Kimberley region.The Giro Giro appeared suddenly with a fully developed cultural package.The local native populace [1961] attributed this art style to another ancient people,the Giro Giro,who were not part of the indigenous population.This art work has no meaning to the traditional land owners.A number of the Bardi people [1915] stated that the Giro Giro were short of stature and were known as the Binarara, which in the Bardi tongue translates to salt water men.They were adept at fashioning good quality hair belts and shell jewellery to hang in front of their bodies.They made a wide range of boomerangs and ornaments.Their abodes were communal grass structures.A group of Bardi attacked a communal dwelling at night,speared many of the sleeping occupants, and burnt their homes [Bardi folklore from I Wilson,2006].The native Wandjina people claim that the Giro Giro injured Wandjina ancestor owl.There was a mighty battle at Timbai and Wandjini triumphed,[Wandjini folklore from I Wilson,2006].J Chazine [2003] speculated that a number of Borneo cave paintings could have features in common with Giro Giro and Dynamic art styles [eg: Gua Saleh cave,SE Borneo;Niah caves,the dancing figures,people in boats and boat funerals].
Collation of the above could recount the arrival by boat of small individuals from Borneo,who settled in territory that had been temporarily abandoned by the traditional land owners.When the latter returned millennia later,they vanquished the male intruders and acquired their females[speculation].This premise is compatible with genetic studies,which indicate that the haplogroup [Hg] diversity of females is significantly greater than the males in Australia.
The Dynamic rock art style [G Chaloupa,1984] in the Northern Territories depicts superbly drawn animals and small [less than 50cm tall] red figures,with speed marks to denote motion.Male figures in head dresses and body ornaments are often engaged in hunting or battle.Dynamic art is present from Katherine to Arnhem Land and in the western Victorian River district ca 250Km NE of Kakada national park.Anumber of rock paintings have minerals permanently banded over them,which have yielded an age earlier than 10Ka ago [D Lewis,1988].The locals credit this art work to the active Mimi spirit people,who are timeless and have the ability to move in and out of rocks.Although they are not considered to be dangerous,they are curious,mischevious and desire company [C Chippindale,2004].The inhabitants of Arnhem Land tell of a great mother figure,who came from the north with a dilly bag of yams suspended from a head ring.She taught the local residents to plant and cook yams and introduced the totem.The yam is not native to Australia,but it is common in Indonesia.A number of Giro Giro paintings “seem” to have small animal totems near a figure head and numerous figures may be toting dilly bags.The great mother came after a long drought,when the sea was rising and the springs and water holes were refilling[folklore,I Wilson,2006]The traditional owners contend that the Mimi once had human form and lived like the local inhabitants did before the Europeans came.The Mimi taught the ancients to kill and butcher kangaroos,paint on rocks and provided ritual instruction.Later during a period of great change the Mimi became tall,thin spirits,who were endowed with supernatural powers[G Chaloupka,1993 and C Chippindale, 2004].The above could have an historical explanation.The small Mimi people arrived in Australia from Borneo.They were accepted by the local inhabitants,who adopted some Mimi cultural practices.Eventually the Mimi suffered the same fate as many newcomers,who reached Australia.The traditional landowners could have some female Mimi mtDNA genes [speculation].
MtDNA analysis of a relatively small number of Australian samples identified at least 15 colonizing female lineages [M Stoneking,1989].M Kayser 2009] constructed a mtDNA pie chart map for Australia.Genetic diversity is substantially higher in the NW than in the SE.M42a dominates in the SE and P4b has an appreciable presence.Neither of these lineages have a significant presence on the NW pie chart.Genetic diversity is much lower on Kayser’s Y chromosome pie chart, where C-DYS 390.1.del/M347 is present in 60% of the male samples and only only one other haplogroup occupies a significant postion.There is a dramatic difference between the male and female pie charts for Australia.The female mtdna haplogroup/haplotype diversity is substantially higher than the male Y chromosome diversity.This gender imbalance might be attributed to the sporadic arrival of small groups of people to Australia from various overseas regions over a long period of time.Traditionally male newcomers were slain and the females were assimilated into the indigenous populations.This could account for the imbalance. [speculation].
The ancient Y chromosome STR haplotype C-RPS4Y* is present on and in the general vicinity of East Timor and the Indonesian Island of Flores.It has been identified in Central Australia and in Arnhem Land,with low frequencies in India.It has not been reported in Polynesia and is represented by a single specimen in New Guinea.This distribution pattern suggests that the haplotype was introduced directly to Australia from the Indonesian Archipeligo and not via New Guinea.
Although numerous genetic studies have been conducted,there are extensive regions of Australia with minimal sample representation and a number of studies tend to be focused on specific areas.A phylogenetic analysis of complete mtDNA sequences in Australia and New Guinea were compared with Asian specimens.Australia and New Guinea share the same Hg M and Hg N founders including,a long time ago,the sub-clade P3 [coalescence date ca 38.4 +/-9.3Ka].A Kalumburu mtDNA sample from northern Queensland has all the basic mutations that are characteristic of Hg Q in New Guinea and Melanesia.The Kalumburu Q branches deeply with Q to a depth of 5 mutations,which implies that it was introduced from the north well before New Guinea and Australia were separated.MtDNA branch S [frequency 34%] is only found in Australia [G Hudjashov,2007].A Redd [1993] researched NW Australian mtDNA sequences and claimed that they had a closer affinity to southern India than to New Guinea.Since Queensland was once connected to New Guinea by land,the 2 populations could be expected to have a closer relationship than they do with NW Australia,which is closer to Indonesia.
The most common [20%] HLA-DR and DQ haplotype in the Kimberley region has not been recorded in the any of the other 19 groups in the S Serjeantson [2006] study.In east Cape York.Queensland the frequency of haplotype Drb1’0803…… is 29.1%.It has an average presence of 18.9% in the Kimberleys and 7.0% in New Guinea.In the Kimberleys there are three HLA-DRB1 mutations,which account for ca 50% of the allele frequency of HLA-DRB1.These mutations have not been identified in any of the other comparison populations [ibid].P Deitiker [2007 pc] contends that two individuals from the Kimberleys harbour IIRC,that contain the same set of polymorphisms, which occur in the Andaman samples in the Bay of Bengal.Correlation of genetic haplotypes,which are present on Flores Island and in Australia,but have no or minimal presence in New Guinea,suggests that many of the early Australian settlers came directly from the Flores Island region
M Rasmussen [2011] estimated that Neanderthals contributed between 3.7 and 5.0% to the native Australian gene pool.D Reich [2011] analyzed the genome wide data of 243 individuals from 33 populations in Oceania,Australia,South and SE Asia to determine the average Deniscova content in the peoples genes.The SNP array data for the 243 samples was merged with Chimpanzee,Deniscva and Neanderthal.The mainland East Asias, western Negritos [Jahar and Onge] and western Indonesian specimens did not have a significant Denisova component..SE Asia and western Indonesia were partially repopulated by an influx of Neolithic newcomers,who did not carry appreciable Denisova genetic material.However Australians [from the Northern Territories and from an unidentified group],New Guineans, Fijians,Nusa Tenggaris islanders,Molucccans,Philippine Manabo and Philippine Mamanwa [Negritos] samples yielded strong evidence of a Denisova genetic contribution [D Reich,2011].
New Guineans and Australians have a similar Denisova frequency of ca 3.5%,which could infer that it was harboured by a common ancestor befor the first settlers set foot on the continent of Sahul.An admixture graph model recorded additional gene flow into Australians /New Guineans by people,who did not have a significant Denisova content in their gene pool.This occurred after the fore bearers of the Philippine Mamanwa had seperated from the ancestral lineage of Australians/New Guineans.The model implies that these newcomers were closer to the Andamanese and Malaysian Negritos than to mainland East Asians,[ibid].
The lithic tool assemblages at the Jwalapuram locality C site in southern India,which date to the era of the Toba volcanic eruption ca 74Ka ago,have size,shape and technological features in common with approximately thirty coeval Middle Stone Age sites in Africa [M Petraglia,2007]. “If” the implements directly above and below the Toba tephra at the Jawalapuram locality C site were manufactured by Homo sapiens,there appears to be a ca 25Ka hiatus between Homo sapiens settlement of India and Australia.Moreover the stone tool kits at site C in India are appreciably different from those at early Australian encampments.
Collation of the various genetic studies indicates that considerably more data will be required before the complex origins of prehistoric Australia colonists can be resolved with some degree of certainty.There were adequate natural resources in Australia most of the time for hunter-foragers to enjoy a largely semi-nomadic,comfortable life style for ca 50Ka,without resorting to the onerous complexities of other organized societies..
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